Attachment †Psychology Essay

DevelopmentalPsychology out fronthand(predicate) societal Development fastener appendix An emotional adherence betwixt twain mass. It is a two- meansprocess that endures all over magazine. It guide ons to certain deportments much(prenominal) as clinging and proximity- turn overking andserves the proceed of protecting the babe. Primary auxiliary rangeThe person who has tropeed the closest bond with a miniscule fry, confrontd by the intensity of the family. ordinarilythe biological father, merely other people apprise fulfil the mathematical function. instruction schemeA mathematical group of explanations which cond unrivalled demeanour in full termsof learning earlier than any native or high ordertendencies. main(prenominal)ly practice sessiond by demeanorists who kinda focustheir explanations purely on what deportment they observe. athletic field system real Conditioning (Pavlov)Unconditi wizd input signal (US) alimentUnconditioned Respons e (UR) pleasure in opposite Stimulus (NS) the feederin condition(p) Stimulus (CS) food from a feederConditioned Response (CR) pleasure/ bail bondLearning Theory Operant Conditioning living When doing something results in a pleasantconsequence, the behaviour is to a greater extent(prenominal) likely to be produced. penalisation When doing something results in an unpleasantconsequence, the behaviour is unlikely to be produced. Dollard and M bader (1950) explain accessory using operant conditioning When an minor is fed it reduces discomfort and increases pleasure, this serves as a riposte and is the capitalreinforcer. The person preparation the food is associatedwith repealing discomfort and is the source of reward whichbecomes the plump forary reinforcer. fixing legislatesbecause the s w ber try ons the person who supplies thereward.Evaluating the Learning Theory StrengthsIt potentiometer entrust adequate explanations of how adjuncts form. Behaviourists argue th at since we atomic bite 18 make up of the same building blocks of stimulant/response environments experiments done on animals argon safe to generalize to human behaviour. flunk It whitethorn be trouble and responsiveness from the c ar formr that is the primal reinforcer, non food. Learning system is largely ancestord on studies with non-human animals. Human behaviour may be homogeneous in many shipway save learning theory does non regard higher(prenominal) order stem and emotions that peck influence behaviour. Har starting duration (1959) exhibit that it is non food but the direct of impinging and comfort the sister receives that increases bond levels. The use of young rhesus monkeys were used to demonstrate this. 60 babies were studied in Glasgow and make that addition was higher to the person who was much or less responsive and who interacted with them much (Schaffer and Emerson,1964).Cant explain the importance of sensitiveness in bail.Bowlbys all iance Theory (1969) ELEMENTS OF BOWLBYS affixation THEORY adjunct is adaptational and ingrained Bowlbys theory is an evolutionary theory because it sees chemical bond as a behaviour that adds to its survival andultimately its reproductive value. Having bond certificatecapabilities is an innate drive, similar to influence, that has long term benefits ensuring it stays close to its c atomic number 18giver. Background on the Theory of Evolution reconciling behaviours atomic number 18 behaviours that increase thelikelihood of survival and counterpart. intrinsic alternative is the continuation of these adaptive traits in spite of attendance the animal to increase chances of survival. Sexual selection is the aptitude to reproduce, non just survive. Adaptive genes that lead to owning traits to assist inreproduction increases sexual selection.Bowlbys holdfast Theory mass medium Period A biologically determined period of conviction during the gage quarter of the world- class year is the some crucial period in which attachments arse be made. Once missed hence it is much difficult for a nestling to make attachments and demonstrate amicable difficulties. Cargon magnanimous is adaptive not hardly attachment but excessively chargegiving is adaptively innate. Social releasers from the baby give signals to the c atomic number 18giver (smiling, crying, etc) to take maintenance of it. extension is the innate system in babies and cargongiving is the innate system in adults. stiff carnal Having a expert attachment provides a pip-squeak with a make prisoner base in which to explore the world from. It fosters independence, not dependence. Monotropy and hierarchy Infants form a number of different attachments but has one picky bias towards a very redundant one called the primary attachment, this is called monotropy. Even with subsidiary attachments, this hierarchy of attachments recognizes the importance of a primary attachment figure (PAF) . The PAF is one that responds or so afflictively to the childs kindly releasers. Secondary attachments atomic number 18 master(prenominal), without them, children tend to overleap accessible skills.Bowlbys Attachment Theory Internal functional warning A mental model of the world that enables individuals to predict and temper their environment. The privilegedworks model based on attachment has severalconsequences In the short-run it gives the child insight into the pitygivers behaviour and enables the child to influencethe do bygivers behaviour so that a true partnership digestbe formed. In the long-term it acts as a template for all future relationships because it generates expectations virtuallyhow people be affirm. The doggedness conjecture The thought that emotionally untouchable infants go on to beemotionally secure, trusting and lovingly confident adults.Evaluating Attachment Theory StrengthsLorenz (1952) supports that imprinting is innate as the goslings imprinted on the first thing they saw moving, which was Lorenz.Research shows that erst the sensitive period has passed and no attachments ar formed, children dis satisfy well-disposed difficulties with peers. If attachment and lotgiving are an important biological function as Bowlby suggests then they would be raise universally. Tronick et al (1992) studied an African tribe in congou tea and assemble despite tribal responsibility for raising kids a PAF is present. This is in like manner testify of monotropy.Schaffer and Emerson do that the more(prenominal) than than pronto a make outgiver responded to a childs call for and the more interaction they had led to a stronger level of attachment. This interaction is important as it is not enough to discombobulate something to nuzzle but to truly be cuddled second builds a stronger attachment.The Minnesota longitudinal aim (2005) install that continuity amongst archaeozoic on attachment and subsequently emotiona l/ kind behaviour. Infants classified as secure were after rated highest for social competence, less isolated, more empathetic and more popular.Evaluating Attachment Theory Weaknesses multiple attachments, according to psychologists, are as every bit important. There are no primary or secondaryattachments, all attachments are integrated into one singleworking model. further, a review the query points to thehierarchical model as being frequent (Prior and Glaser,2006).An alternative explanation to the continuity hypothesis exists, cognize as the tendency hypothesis. This is the belief that children form secure attachments simply because they film a more easy temperament from give up, whereas more innately difficult children a more likely to form dangerous attachments. The infants temperamental characteristics shapes a mothers level of responsiveness. doubting Thomas and Chess (1977) identified infant reputation fonts as easy, difficult and slow-to-warm-up. Belsky and Rovi ne (1987) set in motion a link surrounded by physiological behaviours and later attachments types. The more calm and less intense (aspects of temperament) an infant was the more likely they were to erupt secure attachments.Types of Attachment The Strange particular (Ainsworth and Wittig, 1969)http//www.youtube.com/watch?v=QTsewNrHUHUAim to see how infants behave under situations of stresswith the launching of a crazy and the insularity ofthe refer. This tests stranger anxiety and dissolutionanxiety and also the infants willingness to explore with its secure base.Procedure a 99 look fashion marked off into 16 squareswas used. The affair consists of 8 episodesMEMORISE THEMData is put in by a group of beholders that put downwhat the infant was doing every 15 seconds. reviewernoted the type of behaviour and level of intensity on a scurf of 1-7.Types of Attachment The Strange old agency Findings Ainsworth have information from several studies tomake 106 bourgeoisie i nfants observed.Similarities and differences were entrap in the waythe infants behaved. In terms of similarities, it wasnoted that episode 2 onwards exploratorybehaviour fall spell crying increased.Proximity-seeking and contact-maintainingincreased during separation and when stranger step to the foreed. Finally, contact-resisting and proximityavoiding behaviours rarely slip byred towards the deal outgiver antecedent to separation.Types of Attachment The Strange site FindingsAinsworth found differences in tercet main types of children. uncertain-avoidant this is a course of attachment characterising those children that tend to avoid social interaction and intimacy with others. Secure attachment this is a strong and cheerful attachment of an infant to his or her caregiver which mothers as a result of sensitive responding by the caregiver to the infants needs.Insecure-resistant this is a style of ambivalent attachment characterisingchildren who both seek and reject intimacy and social interaction.briny and Solomon (1986) re-analysed the strange situation video tapes and created a fourth attachment typeInsecure- disorganised these infants lack a coherent and concordant system for dealing with the stress of separation.Secure% of infants(Ainsworth, 1978)% of infants (VanIjzendoorn et , 1999)InsecureavoidantInsecureresistantInsecuredisorganised66%22%12%thirty62%15%9%15%Evaluating Types of Attachment StrengthsAinsworths Strange agency technique has given psychologists a style to under contain and say attachment which can lead to new future findings. hitch strategies have been certain to strengthen caregiving behaviour and attachments types. The Circle of Security Project (Cooper et al, 2005) which teaches caregivers to prize signs of distress showed a decrease in disordered caregiving and an increase in secure attachment types.It has proven to be experimentally valid as its construct rigour has been present by other studies backing the four typ es of attachments and its predictive validity has been demonstrated in coefficient of correlations between proterozoic attachment types and later behaviours. Its findings are also consistent which makes them reliable. Using interobserver reliablity methods, Ainsworth found al approximately perfect agreement at . 94 between the raters (1.0 is perfect). Weakness Or does it lack validity, because it is mean to measure the attachment type of an infant, however does it really simply measure the timber of a particular relationship? Main and Weston (1981) claim it is measuring one relationship instead of something innate deep down an individual. Evaluating Types of Attachment set up of attachment types Bowlbys continuity hypothesis would predict that a childs behaviour later in deportment would be gisted by specificattachment types they develop. Prior and Glaser (2006) found that in later childhood, if as infants they developed a secure attachment type, they wouldbe less emotiona lly dependent and possess moreinterpersonal harmony. Infants with the other three typeswould be more aggressive, interdict indrawn in laterchildhood. It would also effect you in your adult amative lives as hearty. Hazen and Shaver (1987) conducted the Love Quiz whichasked questions close to early experiences and current loveexperiences and found that in that location were characteristicpatterns of later romantic behaviour associated with eachearly attachment type.Evaluating Types of Attachment Factors that influence attachment type predisposition Ainsworth developed the Maternal Sensitivity Scale to rate mothers behaviour such as sensitivity and insensitivity to infants signals. The situation base foundSecurely wedded infantObservedMothers bxInsecurelyattached infantAvoidant infantResistant infantmore sensitive,cooperatingUnresponsive tocrying less friendlyMore rejecting andless attentiongivingPreoccupied withroutine activities whenholding infantMaternal reflective functioni ng any(prenominal) studies have shown low correlations between measures of sensitivity and strength of attachment. Slade et al (2005) found the baron to understand what someone else is thinking or feeling may be more important.Temperament May play a role as previous investigate indicates, but it is unclear.ethnical Variations in Attachment KNOW the definitions of coating, culturalvariations and the difference betweenindividualistic and collectivistic gardenings (pg.45) Cross-cultural Similarities AinsworthsUganda study (1967) Tronick et al (1992) study on the African tribe inZaire Fox (1977) infants in Isreali kibbutz raise bynurses when tested in the Strange Situationappeared equally attached to both caregivers, draw off in the reunion behaviour where theyshowed greater attachment to their mothers.Cultural Variations in Attachment Cross-cultural Differences Grossman and Grossman (1991) found that German infants appear more insecurely attached rather than secure. This may be cod to the different childrearing practices as German culture involves charge some interpersonal distance from the parent and infant. Takahashi (1990) used the Strange Situation on a group of 60 lower-middle-class infants in lacquer and found similar rates of secure attachment. However, the infants showed no evidence of insecure-avoidant and high rates of insecureresistance (32%). Different childrearing practices can explain the difference for in Japan the infants are rarely ever uncaring from their parents which is why they would be more upset than their American counterparts. Conclusions These studies suggest that the strongest attachments are lighten formed with their mothers and that there are differences in attachment that can be link to differences in cultural attitudes. Meta-analysis study by Van IJzendoorn and Kroonenberg (1988) examined over 2000 Strange Situation classification studies in 8 countries. They found the variation between countries and culture were li lliputian with secure attachment being the to the highest degree common in all countries followed by insecure-avoidant except in Japan and Israel. Variations within cultures however were greater. In conclusion the findings appear to be similar to that found in the US and this supports the view that attachment is an innate and biological process. Also data collected on different subcultures should not be generalised to be representative of a particular culture.Criticisms of Research on CulturalVariations Culture biasRothbaum et al (2000) argued that attachment theory and inquiry is not germane(predicate) to other countries because it is grow in American culture. For example, the sensitivity hypothesis reflects wattern ideas of self-sufficiency whereas in Japan sensitivity is intimately promoting dependence. The continuity hypothesis states thatsecure infant attachments create more competent adults, however, this competence is defined in terms of individuation. The secure base hypothesis in the west explains secure attached infants as mugwump and confident exploring whereas in Japan they kick upstairs dependence and the concept of amae and so this canexplain why insecure-resistant behaviours are more typical.Rothbaum concludes that psychologists should produce a set of natural theories that are explanations of attachment that are rooted in individual cultures with a small group of universal principles (infant need for protection) but mostly with childcare practices relating to cultural values.Rothbaum was challenged by Posada and Jacobs (2001) whichshows that attachment theory does apply to most cultures.Criticisms of Research on CulturalVariations Criticisms of cross-cultural research Testsof procedures used may not be equally validin the country and may make the culture appearinferior or insane. This is an example ofimposed etic. This is when a research method isused in one culture yet thought it was designed tobe used in other (intelligence tests o r observations). The group that was tested may not berepresentative of the culture and yet researchersmight make generalisations some the whole cultureor stock- sleek over the whole country. perturbation of Attachment Effects of SeparationSpitz and Wolf (1946) observed coulomb children in an invention became severely down in the mouth after a few months.Skeels and spot (1939) found similar children scored lower on intelligence tests.Bifulo et al (1992) found that banish do of de distress may occur later in behavior. When 249 women who had lost their mothers before they were 17 were studied, it was found that they were twice as likely to develop depressive/anxiety disorders later in life.Robertsons (1967-73) made films observing the effectuate of separation in childrenWhen given a high level of emotional care and similar structures to that of their home life, the children exhibited some signs of distress, however, slept well and did not reject their PAF when they were reuni ted. Some were even reluctant to part with the foster mother which is a sign of a unattackable emotional bond.John, however, was in a nursery and not given such attention. He became withdrawn and gave up on proximity seeking bx. When he was reunited with his mother he rejected her for months and demonstrated outbursts of anger towards her. prisonbreak of Attachment Physical and Emotional Disruption As the research evidence shows differences in the way physical and emotional attention is given can produce damaging cause in children. However, there are studiesthat show these ill effect can be reversed. Sigvardsson (1979) studied over 600 take children in Sweden and at the age of eleven, 26% of them wereclassified as problem children. However in a follow up study, ten years later they were no worse off than theaverage population. So when alternative emotional care is provided, ill effects of separation can be reversed. However, for somechildren disruption of attachment leads to f ixeddifficulties. To criticise the validity of the research consider that they are based on shield studies. Weakness of case studies arethat they are based on generalisations and they depend onobjectivity of the observers and are prone to observer bias.Failure to category Attachment unaffectionate children Privation is the lack of having any attachments due to the failure todevelop such attachments early in life. GenieThe Czech twinLocked in a room by her father until she was 13. When discovered she could not stand erect or speak. She was disinterested in people and never healed socially.Locked forth by their step-mother until the age of 7. Were looked after by their sisters and by 14 had normal social and intellectual capabilities. By 20 they had preceding(prenominal) average intelligence andexcellent social skills.EvaluationWas unclear whether or not Genie was retarded at birth or if she ever formed an attachment with her mother. The Czech twins may have formed attachments t o each other to redress for complete lack of care. It is difficult to tinct firm conclusions based on only these cases.Failure to Form Attachment institutional apportionMultiple studies show that the effects of institutionalisation within children is acute distress.Longitudinal studies have been conducted to see what long term effects arecaused by institutionalisation.Hodges and Tizard (1989) followed a group of 65 British children from early life to adolescence. Children have been place in an institution from before they were 4 months old. Children have not yet formed attachments at this age. An early study found that 70% of the children were not able to care deeply for anyone.The children were assessed unceasingly up to the age of 16. Some children remained while most were adopted or restored with their authorized families. The restored children were less likely to develop an attachment with their mothers but the adopted ones were as well attached to their adopted parents a s the control group. However, both groups had problems with peers and showed signs of disinhibited attachment.These findings suggest that early privation had negatively charged effects on the ability to form relationships even when given well behaved subsequent emotional care. If failure to develop attachments after the sensitive period occur it can have an irreversible effect on emotional using.Failure to Form Attachment Effects of Privation and Institutionalisation Attachment disorder This has been recognised as a psychiatric condition and has been included in the DSMIV. There are two kinds of attachment disorder, inhibited and disinhibited. Children with an attachment disorder have no PAF, cant interact or relate to others before the age of 5 and have experienced severe fell or frequent changes in caregivers. little parenting skills Harlows monkeys that were raised with surrogate mothers went on to become poor parents. Also, Quinton et al (1984) found similar findings when h e compared 50 women who had been raised in institutions. When the women were in their 20s the ex-institutionalised mothers were experiencing extremedifficulties acting as parents. passing dwarfism Physical evidence by Gardner (1972) that institutionalised children are physically underdeveloped, potentially caused by stress hormones. Evaluation In the study of Romanian children, one-third recovered well despite not establishing a PAF prior to the sensitive period. Therefore, privation only cannot explain negative outcomes. This suggests that damage occurs when there are multiple risk factors (Turner and Lloyd, 1995). Not sure if the children failed to form attachments early in life. Maybe they did and the problems they experienced later were more think to rejection.Impact of solar daylight sustainment twenty-four hours fearfulness the form of episodic care not given by the family or someone well known to the child and usually outside of the home.Social increment the aspec t of a childs growth concerned with the development of sociability, where the child learns to relate to others and with the process of socialisation, the child learns social skills appropriate to the society. Negative effects on social development Meta-analysis from findings of 88 studies supports Bowlbys research that prolonged separation from the PAF leads to maladjustment. Violata and Russell (1994) cogitate that regular mean solar solar twenty-four hour periodlightlight care for more than 20 hrs a work calendar week had an unmistakable negative effect on socio-emotional development, behaviour and attachment of young children. NICHD in USA conducted a longitudinal study of over 1000 children. Parents were interviewed regarding the effects of regular twenty-four hours care. The study showedthat the more time a child spent in mean solar daytime care, regardless of quality, the adults rated them as more disobedient and aggressive (NICHD, 2003). The children in day care wer e 3 times more likely to demonstrate behavioural problems than children that were cared by their mothers. Melhuish (2004) found evidence that children with high levels of day care in the first two years of development had elevated risks of developing anti-social behaviours. The Minnesota longitudinal study demonstrated the more securely attached infants are the more popular with peers they become. So therefore, the more insecure an infant, more peer related problems could be expected. Belsky and Rovine (1988) assessed attachment in children in day care and found that were more likely to be insecurely attached compared to children at home.Impact of Day Care Positive effects on social developmentGood day care provides plenty of social stimulation, whereas, children living at home may lack social interactions.Brown and Harris (1978) found depressed mothers contributedtheir low moods to being isolated at home with children.Depressed mothers are likely to form insecure attachments with their children which would have a negative effect on their children. Therefore, the independence gained with having a child in day care is a way to prevent this.Clarke-Stewart et al (1994) studied 150 children and found they were consistently more compliant and independent.The EPPE followed 3000 children in pre-schools and foundincreased sociability (Sylvia et al, 2003).Day care exposes children to their peers thus enabling them to develop socialstrategies (negotiate and make friends). Field (1991) found a positive degree correlation between the nitty-gritty of time in day care and the number of friends children have once they autograph school. Also, those that started day care before 6 months were more sociable than those that started later.Evaluating Research on Day Care Weaknesses of research on day careWhen evaluating the research, one must consider thecircumstances under which one can find positive or negativeoutcomes.Prodromidis (1995) found no correlation between Swedish c hildren in day care and aggression.Freidman from NICHD explains the aggression study actually shows that day care children may be more aggressive than non-day care, but still 83% of children in day care between 10 -30 hours a week show no signs of aggression.Second important finding from the NICHD research is that the mothers sensitivity to the child, higher maternal education and income all play a more important role in decreased behavioural problems than the summation of time in day care.Finally, the findings are not causal. The data cannot show that day care caused aggression only that there is a link between the two. Therefore, the data suggests that childrens development is more strongly modify by factors at home than those in day care (Belsky et al, 2007).Evaluating Research on Day Care Weaknesses of Research on Day Care Cannot apply a cause relating to peer relations aswell, only a link. For example, shy and antisocialchildren have mothers that are shy andunsociable, there fore, its contingent that moreoutgoing parents/children that go to day care. A lot of research supports the idea that day carealone has no direct effect on development andthat there are other factors involved. Gregg et al(2005) analysed findings from the Children of the90s study and concluded that for the majority ofchildren, maternal employment in their first 3years of life had no adverse effects on behaviour.Evaluating Research on Day Care Mediating FactorsQuality of CareIndividual DifferencesAs the quality of care decreases it is expected that the attachment type will become poorer. NICHD study (1997) found that low-quality care was associated with poor social development. As parents have different interests in their child, day care staff are less invested and therefore provide a different kind of attention. This is reflected in Howes and Hamilton (1992) findingsthat secure attachmentsoccurred in only 50% of day care staff but 70% in mothers.The NICHD study found the more secur e a childs attachment level is the remedy they argue with time spent in day care. However, another study showed that insecure children coped better than secure children (showed more aggressive bx) in day care.Childs age and number of hoursGregg et al (2005) found that negative effects were more likely to be found in children starting day care before 18 months of age. However, the order of these effects was small.Clarke-Stewart et al (1994) found no difference in attachment between spending a lot of time in day care (more than 30 hours) with those that spend a little time (less than 10 hours).Implications of Research intoAttachment and Day care Attachment Research Attachment research has shown that when separation occurs, negative effects of this separation can be avoided if qualify emotional care can be provided and links to the PAF are made available. This research has changed the way hospitals handle visiting arrangements and the way institutional care is provided. A second i mplication is the way the adoptions process is managed allowing babies to be adopted earlier strengthening child/parent attachments (Singer, 1985). Another implication is the cash advance of parenting skills, ie, Circle of Security, which improves infant/mother relationships. Finally, attachment research has been used to improve day care quality focusing on the importance of secondary attachment figures. Day Care Research As research shows, high quality care leads to positive outcomes. What is highquality care? Low child-staff ratios 31 is ideal for sensitive care to be given Minimal staff turnover rate allows for consistent care and decreases anxiety Sensitive emotional care only 23% of carers demonstrated highly sensitive care, 50% was moderate care and 20% were emotionally detached. Qualified staff qualified managers lead to better social development To visualise high-quality care, legal standards are implemented relating to staff ratio to age of the child, minimum q ualifications of staff, Ofsted inspections and finally the sure Start programme.